How Do You Address Selection Bias and Confounding Variables in Quantitative Research?
A core ambition of empirical inquiry across econometrics, clinical epidemiology, psychology, and marketing science is establishing valid causal links. Researchers do not simply want to know whether two variables move together; they want to determine whether modifying an independent intervention ($X$) causes a measurable change in an outcome ($Y$). However, in observational studies where...
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